It is often said in the research literature on second language acquisition that two key factors behind success are aptitude and motivation. I have posted before about aptitude here. In this post, I'm lifting and adapting some sections sections about motivation from our handbook The Language Teacher Toolkit (Second Edition). I have not listed the references at the end of this post - they are part of the ample bibliography in the handbook.
Motivation has been considered over the years from various perspectives, all of which cast light on the topic and can help language teachers provide the best conditions for learning. below are some of those perspectives.
1. Instrumental and integrative motivation
Gardner and Lambert coined the terms instrumental motivation (language learning for more immediate or practical goals, such as mastering basic conversation for a professional role) and integrative motivation (language learning for personal growth, cultural enrichment and a desire to integrate into the L2 community). This distinction has its uses, but in schools it is difficult to distinguish clearly between them. For many students, the instrumental goal may be simply to pass an examination as a means to a further goal, e.g. getting a place at college or university.
2. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
Educational
psychology has identified two basic classifications of motivation: intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation arises from a
desire to learn a topic due to its inherent interest, for self-fulfilment,
enjoyment and to achieve a mastery of the subject. One definition from the
research literature claims that it refers to the spontaneous tendency “to seek
out novelty and challenges, to extend and exercise one’s capacity to explore,
and to learn” (Ryan and Deci, 2000 p. 70). Intrinsic motivation can be likened
to the concept of flow Csikszentmihalyi (1990). Flow refers to “states
of total absorption, optimal challenge, and non-self-conscious enjoyment of an
activity” (Di Domenico and Ryan, 2017 p. 4).
On the other hand, extrinsic motivation (essentially the same as instrumental
motivation) is the impetus to perform and succeed for the sake of accomplishing
a specific result or outcome. You might say, for example, that students who are
very grade-oriented are extrinsically motivated, whereas those who seem to
truly embrace their work and take a genuine interest in it are intrinsically
motivated.
Most people (researchers too, by the way) would suggest that intrinsic motivation is the purer, higher-quality version, but it is not achievable in every situation. Capable teachers will normally do their best to develop intrinsic motivation in their students while making judicious use of extrinsic rewards. Researchers have arrived at three main conclusions about extrinsic rewards and their influence on intrinsic motivation.
Praise can help increase intrinsic motivation. Researchers (e.g. Cameron and Pierce, 1994) have found that offering positive praise and feedback when people do something better in comparison to others can improve intrinsic motivation.
The ‘over-justification effect’ (Deci, 1971). Intrinsic motivation decreases, when expected external rewards are given for completing a particular task or only doing minimal work, when the student perceives that the reward is not really justified. For example, if parents heap lavish praise on their child every time they complete a simple task, they will become less intrinsically motivated to perform that task in future.
Unexpected
external rewards do not usually decrease
intrinsic motivation. For example, if a student gets a good grade on a test
because they enjoy learning about the subject and we decide to reward them
with, say, a certificate or merit points, the student’s underlying motivation
for learning about the subject will not be affected. However, we need to give
such rewards with caution because they will sometimes come to expect them.
3. Self-determination theory
This assumes there are people for whom a feeling of being in control of their life and responsible for their actions is very important for personal fulfilment and, consequently, for their motivation.
According to this theory, people need to feel the following to achieve psychological growth:
§ Autonomy: People
need to feel in control of their own behaviours and goals. This sense of being
able to take direct action that will result in real change plays a major part
in helping people feel self-determined.
§ Competence: People
need to gain mastery of tasks and learn different skills. Feeling they have the skills needed for
success, means they are more likely to take actions that will help achieve
their goals.
§ Connection or relatedness: People need to experience a sense of belonging and attachment to other people.
The above three factors are claimed to lead to greater volition, motivation and engagement, which in turn foster greater persistence, achievement and creativity (Deci and Ryan, 2000). Fundamental to this theory is the notion of intrinsic motivation.
Teacher takeaways: create a supportive classroom environment where positive relationships are the norm; include activities which allow students to use the L2 in creative ways, e.g. in the co-creation of stories; as with self-efficacy (see below) ensure students feel success by using comprehensible language. For much more on this, seek out the podcast The Motivated Classroom by teacher and consultant, Liam Printer.
4. The Motivational Self System
Another influential (and language learning-specific) way of looking at motivation comes from psycholinguist Zoltan Dörnyei’s Motivational Self System, e.g. Dörnyei (2009). This model suggests that motivation is based on three main considerations: the ideal self, the ought-to self and the second language learning experience. The ideal self (or possible self) is how we imagine we might be if we can speak another language. The ought-to self is about expected behaviours. The L2 learning experience is about the impact of the teacher, the curriculum, peer group or experience of success, but also many areas beyond the classroom. A good deal of Dörnyei’s research was about how classroom pedagogy can influence motivation.
Teacher takeaways: obvious perhaps, but despite any extra-classroom factors which affect motivation, we have a lot of influence through the nature of the activities we design and the atmosphere we create in the classroom. Seek any opportunities for students to engage in enjoyable work outside class, including homework.
5. Self-efficacy theory
Williams and Burden’s framework of internal and external factors surrounding motivation refers to the concept of self-efficacy. This concerns “the extent to which people develop behaviours that allow them to persist within potentially stressful situations” (Graham, 2022 p.187). It is partly about the expectancy of success, i.e. the extent to which we believe we shall succeed at a task. More precisely, it is the belief in our capabilities to organise and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments (Bandura, 1997). In other words, self-efficacy is focused on personal agency. Success is brought about by the actions the individual undertakes (Graham, 2022).
By the way, as Graham (2022) points out, Bandura makes clear that self-efficacy mainly affects persistence, which in turn improves outcomes. With high self-efficacy learners choose more difficult tasks, work on them longer, attribute outcomes to their own efforts or strategies, and thus achieve more highly (Bandura, 1994).
Self-efficacy is sometimes likened to the notion of competence in Self-Determination Theory.
Teacher takeaways: The development of self-efficacy and competence from the very early stages should be a priority. To coin a phrase, nothing breeds success like success. If students feel confident about tasks and experience a sense of mastery, their motivation is enhanced. Language input should always be comprehensible, tasks achievable and enjoyable. Methods and activities which create undue cognitive load should be avoided.
To sum up this post, it's clear that motivation can be looked at from various perspectives. But in addition, each student may bring their own very particular motivation.
A very gifted former student, now a French teacher, was besotted with French from the very start, despte having no connection with the country or culture. She had enormous grammatical and phonological skill and an absolute desire to be accurate and to please. Where did her motivation come from? I don't know, but her natural ability must have been crucial. It makes you wonder what is going on at the interface of aptitude and motivation. If you are naturally brilliant at something, you are likely to be highly motivated.
I recall another pupil who, because of her love of manga comics and Japanese culture, was not just motivated by language learning, but eventually studied Japanese at university. Her motivation fitted well within the Gardner and Lambert notion of integrative motivation.
Many other pupils I taught shared that type of integrative motivation. The majority did not, however - not unusual in a predominantly anglophone country like the UK. So, from my own persepctive, I would choose self-efficacy as possibly the most useful theory of motivation. I would also add that the extrinsic motivation engendered by the desire for exam success can be crucial for many. Indeed, at a professional development session at Ripon Grammar School, our MFL advisor at the time, Kate C|orney, claimed that from her observations of many schools, it was exams which were the biggest motivator for many, many pupils. Sad, maybe, but not to be ignored.
Whether the motivations are intrinsic or extrinsic, give students the chance to succeed while providing the right amount of challenge and enjoyment and you are on the right lines. And don't feel too queasy about using exams to motivate!
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